Les effets du changement climatique sur la croissance des plantes

With climate change, many environmental factors are changing, which have a significant impact on plant growth and crop yields. While increasing atmospheric CO₂concentrations promote photosynthesis and biomass production, increasing temperatures and more frequent and intense droughts disrupt cellular homeostasis (by affecting the composition, concentration, and structure of various cellular components and compartments), triggering adaptive responses in plants. These factors combine to cause plants, thanks to their phenotypic plasticity, to develop responses to these environmental constraints and affect their growth.

Plants account for more than 80% of the Earth's biomass [7], and CO₂plays a fundamental role in the carbon cycle [8]. As plants provide food for humanity, the issue of how climate change affects plant growth is an urgent issue. In this paper, we focus on three parameters that change with climate change: CO₂concentrations, temperature, and drought. We also discuss the interactions between the various factors and the responses at the ecosystem level.

The main effects of climate change are well known. CO₂concentrations have already risen from 280 ppm to 415 ppm since 1880 [9]. Emissions of CO₂and other greenhouse gases will cause an increase in average temperatures of 1-4 °C over the next 100 years, depending on the scenario [10]. In addition to this, the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, especially droughts (defined as an abnormal lack of water that is so pronounced that it visibly affects plant growth), will increase [10].

If CO₂However, the range of temperature and precipitation will vary greatly depending on the region by 2100 (Fig. 1). The impact on the plants depends on both the climate and the characteristics of the species cultivated in the area. For example, as a result of a large warming, the arable land area increases in Scandinavia, and new crops can be introduced, but in the Mediterranean coastal area, mainly extreme climate phenomena, especially serious drought. You will be faced with [11].

Compared to 1850 to 1900, the temperature rises by 2 ° C, the temperature from the present to 2100 years and continuous drought change

A. The difference between the current average temperature and the estimated temperature of 2100 years. B. estimated average temperature in 2100. C. Continuous dry days difference (precipitation, rainfall, etc.).< 1 mm) entre le climat actuel et 2100. D. Nombre de journées sèches consécutives en 2100.

Author: Elise Muller, IPCC Interactive Atlas License: CC-by-SA

These three factors-coo₂Air condition, temperature, drought-Here, only one of these parameters is changed in the laboratory and most of the research is to consider the impact, so it is described individually. These studies are mainly modeled plant plants (for example, see Fig. 3) and crop plants (especially large soybeans, cotton flowers, corn, rice, wheat).

L’augmentation de la concentration en CO₂ favorise le métabolisme carboné et la croissance

Conséquences métaboliques et moléculaires : l’assimilation du CO₂ atmosphérique renforcée

CO in the atmosphere₂Increased concentration has a direct effect on carbon metabolism. Because Co₂This is because it will be used more often in cells in the cells (or librous-1, 5-bisphospat carbokisillase / oxygenase), which captures carbon in the atmosphere during photosynthesis. More Co₂Is assimilated more. But co₂That is, the ability to play Rubp and the ability to produce scrauses and starch using triosoline acid (Fig. 2) [13] [13] In the long term, hig h-concentration CO < Span>, but the range of temperature and precipitation will be significantly different depending on the region by 2100 (Figure 1). The impact on the plants depends on both the climate and the characteristics of the species cultivated in the area. For example, as a result of a large warming, the arable land area increases in Scandinavia, and new crops can be introduced, but in the Mediterranean coastal area, mainly extreme climate phenomena, especially serious drought. You will be faced with [11].₂Compared to 1850 to 1900, the temperature rises by 2 ° C, the temperature from the present to 2100 years and continuous drought change

A. The difference between the current average temperature and the estimated temperature of 2100 years. B. estimated average temperature in 2100. C. Continuous dry days difference (precipitation, rainfall, etc.).₂

Author: Elise Muller, IPCC Interactive Atlas License: CC-by-SA

These three factors-coo

Air condition, temperature, drought-Here, only one of these parameters is changed in the laboratory and most of the research is to consider the impact, so it is described individually. These studies are mainly modeled plant plants (for example, see Fig. 3) and crop plants (especially large soybeans, cotton flowers, corn, rice, wheat).₂CO in the atmosphere

Increased concentration has a direct effect on carbon metabolism. Because Co₂This is because it will be used more often in cells in the cells (or librous-1, 5-bisphospat carbokisillase / oxygenase), which captures carbon in the atmosphere during photosynthesis. More Co₂Is assimilated more. But co

Conséquences morphologiques : croissance favorisée et meilleurs rendements

That is, the ability to play Rubp and the ability to produce scrauses and starch using triosoline acid (Fig. 2) [13] [13] In the long term, hig h-concentration CO, however, the range of temperature and precipitation will vary greatly depending on the region by 2100 (Figure 1). The impact on the plants depends on both the climate and the characteristics of the species cultivated in the area. For example, as a result of a large warming, the arable land area increases in Scandinavia, and new crops can be introduced, but in the Mediterranean coastal area, mainly extreme climate phenomena, especially serious drought. You will be faced with [11].₂Compared to 1850 to 1900, the temperature rises by 2 ° C, the temperature from the present to 2100 years and continuous drought change

A. The difference between the current average temperature and the estimated temperature of 2100 years. B. estimated average temperature in 2100. C. Continuous dry days difference (precipitation, rainfall, etc.).₂Author: Elise Muller, IPCC Interactive Atlas License: CC-by-SA

These three factors-coo_2.Air condition, temperature, drought-Here, only one of these parameters is changed in the laboratory and most of the research is to consider the impact, so it is described individually. These studies are mainly modeled plant plants (for example, see Fig. 3) and crop plants (especially large soybeans, cotton flowers, corn, rice, wheat).

CO in the atmosphere

Increased concentration has a direct effect on carbon metabolism. Because Co

This is because it is more commonly used in cells in Luzco Enzyme (or Librous-1, 5-Bisphosfate Calbo Shirase / Oxygenase), which captures carbon in the atmosphere during photosynthesis. More Co₂Is assimilated more. But co

La hausse des températures affecte de nombreux processus cellulaires et morphologiques

That is, the ability to play Rubp and the ability to produce scrauses and starch using triosoline acid (Fig. 2) [13] [13] In the long term, high concentration CO

[13].

Importance of Rubisco in metabolism and regulation of Rubisco activity by CO2 partial pressure

Photorespiration and the Calvin cycle are two complex reactions. Here, only some of the steps and reactants and products involved are shown.

L’augmentation de la température en dessous de l’optimum favorise la croissance

Author: Élise Muller License: CC-BY-SA₂

Moreover, an increase in the carboxylase activity of Rubisco (carbon assimilation) would impair its role in photorespiration (a metabolic reaction that starts with oxygen assimilation by Rubisco) [8].₂Metabolic reactions that start with assimilation) [8].

Photorespiration is often a limiting factor for growth, but its reduction can have a negative effect on stress tolerance and nitrogen metabolism, leading to a decrease in protein content in some crops [8, 13, 14].

Moreover, CO

is also involved in signaling pathways. High concentrations of CO

Le stress thermique perturbe l’homéostasie des cellules végétales

change the activity of ion channels in the cell membrane, reducing stomatal aperture and, as a result, stomatal conductance (Fig. 3C). This limits transpiration, conserving soil water resources, but also limits plant cooling [13]. Transcriptional responses are also observed, modifying carbon metabolism, especially by stimulating the carbon assimilation pathway via photosynthesis (Fig. 5) [12].

Increased carbon uptake through photosynthesis is naturally associated with increased biomass. Root biomass also increases, as does the root-to-shoot ratio. More lateral roots are established, and root growth takes place in more superficial soil layers, especially in agricultural species (Fig. 3A and 3B; Fig. 9, CO2 panel) [12].

) [12].₂O₂Effects of various CO2 on growth and stomata in Arabidopsis thaliana

A. Plants were grown for 4 weeks and treated with different CO2₂B. Rosette dry mass at 2 and 6 weeks (ns: not significant, **: significant). C. Shoot opening in 4-week-old plants.₂Author: Translated from Zhou et al, 2017 License: CC-BY Source: Frontiers in Plant Science

Product development is also promoted. In many agricultural species, the number of flowers, seeds, seeds increases, the growth period increases, and the aging is delayed, so the yield increases.₂However, it should be noted that the concentration of iron and zinc is reduced [12] and the protein level decreases, so that the nutritional quality of the crop decreases. The impact of light evaporation has already been described. More generally, nitrogen metabolism is CO₂It is affected by the rise in concentration, and one of the reasons is that the incorporation of nitrate is reduced. [14]

Because heat stirrings are generated, the temperature is involved in all biochemical reactions in the cells. In addition, many enzymes have a temperatur e-dependent activity. Therefore, the temperature is an important factor in the growth of plants. Until the optimal temperature, it is advantageous for biochemical reactions and development, but exceeding that is disadvantageous for development (Fig. 4). This is known as heat stress. Obviously, the impact depends on the characteristics of the rise in temperature (strength, duration, upward rate) and the characteristics of plants (species, especially C3 plants, C4 plants, varieties, growing stage, and optimal temperature). [12, 15, 16].

Relative growth as a function of different crops (rice, wheat, sorgam, cauliflower)₂The reference value corresponds to growth at 20 ° C. The dotted line shows the temperature corresponding to optimal growth. The curve corresponds to the temperature response model that complies with experimental growth growth data.₂Author: élise Muller (Created based on the data of PARENT AND TARDIEU, 2012) License: CC-by-Sa Source: New Phytologist₂Relationship between the photosynthetic speed, temperature and CO2 of Obako (Plantago asiatica).₂The photosynthetic speed is fixed to the unit time and the pile of the leaf surface.

Corresponds to the fixed amount. < SPAN> reproductive growth is also promoted. In many agricultural species, the number of flowers, seeds, seeds increases, the growth period increases, and the aging is delayed, so the yield increases.₂However, it should be noted that the concentration of iron and zinc is reduced [12] and the protein level decreases, so that the nutritional quality of the crop decreases. The impact of light evaporation has already been described. More generally, nitrogen metabolism is CO₂It is affected by the rise in concentration, and one of the reasons is that the incorporation of nitrate is reduced. [14]

Because heat stirrings are generated, the temperature is involved in any biochemical reaction in the cell. In addition, many enzymes have a temperatur e-dependent activity. Therefore, the temperature is an important factor in the growth of plants. Until the optimal temperature, it is advantageous for biochemical reactions and development, but exceeding that is disadvantageous for development (Fig. 4). This is known as heat stress. Obviously, the impact depends on the characteristics of the rise in temperature (strength, duration, upward rate) and the characteristics of plants (species, especially C3 plants, C4 plants, varieties, growing stage, and optimal temperature). [12, 15, 16].₂Relative growth as a function of different crops (rice, wheat, sorgam, cauliflower)₂The reference value corresponds to growth at 20 ° C. The dotted line shows the temperature corresponding to optimal growth. The curve corresponds to the temperature response model that complies with experimental growth growth data.₂Author: élise Muller (Created based on the data of PARENT and TARDIEU, 2012) License: CC-by-Sa Source: New Phytologist₂Relationship between the photosynthetic speed, temperature and CO2 of Obako (Plantago asiatica).

The photosynthetic speed is fixed to the unit time and the pile of the leaf surface.

Corresponds to the fixed amount. Product development is also promoted. In many agricultural species, the number of flowers, seeds, seeds increases, the growth period increases, and the aging is delayed, so the yield increases.

Mécanismes d’accommodation face à un stress thermique

However, it should be noted that the concentration of iron and zinc is reduced [12] and the protein level decreases, so that the nutritional quality of the crop decreases. The impact of light evaporation has already been described. More generally, nitrogen metabolism is CO

It is affected by the rise in concentration, and one of the reasons is that the incorporation of nitrate is reduced. [14]

Because heat stirrings are generated, the temperature is involved in all biochemical reactions in the cells. In addition, many enzymes have a temperatur e-dependent activity. Therefore, the temperature is an important factor in the growth of plants. Until the optimal temperature, it is advantageous for biochemical reactions and development, but exceeding that is disadvantageous for development (Fig. 4). This is known as heat stress. Obviously, the impact depends on the characteristics of the rise in temperature (strength, duration, up rate) and the characteristics of plants (species, especially C3 plants, C4 plants, varieties, growing stage, and optimal temperature). [12, 15, 16].

Relative growth as a function of different crops (rice, wheat, sorgam, cauliflower)

The reference value corresponds to growth at 20 ° C. The dotted line shows the temperature corresponding to optimal growth. The curve corresponds to the temperature response model that complies with experimental growth growth data.

Augmentation et intensification des périodes de sécheresse

Author: élise Muller (Created based on the data of PARENT and TARDIEU, 2012) License: CC-by-Sa Source: New Phytologist

Effets cellulaires et moléculaires : arrêt de la croissance et limitation de la photosynthèse

Relationship between the photosynthetic speed, temperature and CO2 of Obako (Plantago asiatica).

The photosynthetic speed is fixed to the unit time and the pile of the leaf surface.₂Corresponds to the fixed amount.

Author: Hikosaka et al, 2006, Translated and Adapted by Pascal Combemorel License: CC-by-SA Source: Journal of Experimental Botany

Conséquences morphologiques et fonctionnelles

When the temperature rises in a temperature range, which is lower than the optimal temperature, the leaf part grows larger [12], and the density of the pores and the decrease in the internal culture decrease, causing changes at the organism and organ (organs. Fig. 9, temperature panel) [13, 16]. The roots are longer, more, and farther, and change the appearance of the root net [12]. In terms of metabolism, breathing and photosynthesis are more important (see Fig. 5 for the effects of temperature against photosynthesis).

The rise in temperature is also involved in changes during the life cycle. Many species are quickly blooming, which can be disadvantageous for reproduction, as reducing the possibility of accumulating resources necessary for reproductive growth. The time lag can also cause synchronization issues with other biological and biological factors involved in reproduction (such as polliners). The acceleration of the flowering may be due to the temperature directly affecting the speed of growth and springization. In particular, there are concerns that the current global warming will significantly reduce the number of geographical regions with cold winter conditions to ensure springization, which is an essential condition for fruit trees, for example. [12, 17].

In addition to the above changes, thermal stress has a significant effect on reproductive development, which hinders the opening of anthers, germinating pollen, and the growth of pollen tubes. < SPAN> Author: Hikosaka et al, 2006, Translated and Adapted by Pascal Combemorel License: CC-by-SA Source: Journal of Experimental Botany

When the temperature rises in a temperature range, which is lower than the optimal temperature, the leaf part grows larger [12], and the density of the pores and the decrease in the internal culture decrease, causing changes at the organism and organ (organs. Fig. 9, temperature panel) [13, 16]. The roots are longer, more, and farther, and change the appearance of the root net [12]. In terms of metabolism, breathing and photosynthesis are more important (see Fig. 5 for the effects of temperature against photosynthesis).

The rise in temperature is also involved in changes during the life cycle. Many species are quickly blooming, which can be disadvantageous for reproduction, as reducing the possibility of accumulating resources necessary for reproductive growth. The time lag can also cause synchronization issues with other biological and biological factors involved in reproduction (such as polliners). The acceleration of the flowering may be due to the temperature directly affecting the speed of growth and springization. In particular, there are concerns that the current global warming will significantly reduce the number of geographical regions with cold winter conditions to ensure springization, which is an essential condition for fruit trees, for example. [12, 17].

In addition to the above changes, thermal stress has a significant effect on reproductive development, which hinders the opening of anthers, germinating pollen, and the growth of pollen tubes. Author: Hikosaka et al, 2006, Translated and Adapted by Pascal Combemorel License: CC-by-SA Source: Journal of Experimental Botany

When the temperature rises in a temperature range, which is lower than the optimal temperature, the leaf part grows larger [12], and the density of the pores and the decrease in the internal culture decrease, causing changes at the organism and organ (organs. Fig. 9, temperature panel) [13, 16]. The roots are longer, more, and farther, and change the appearance of the root net [12]. In terms of metabolism, breathing and photosynthesis are more important (see Fig. 5 for the effects of temperature against photosynthesis).

Les stratégies face à la sécheresse

The rise in temperature is also involved in changes during the life cycle. Many species are quickly blooming, which can be disadvantageous for reproduction, as reducing the possibility of accumulating resources necessary for reproductive growth. The time lag can also cause synchronization issues with other biological and biological factors involved in reproduction (such as polliners). The acceleration of the flowering may be due to the temperature directly affecting the speed of growth and springization. In particular, there are concerns that the current global warming will significantly reduce the number of geographical regions with cold winter conditions to ensure springization, which is an essential condition for fruit trees, for example. [12, 17].

In addition to the above changes, thermal stress has a significant effect on reproductive development, which hinders the opening of anthers, germinating pollen, and the growth of pollen tubes.

At the cell level, the cellular normal (that is, the composition, concentration, and structure of various components and parcels in cells) of plants exposed to a sudden temperature rise (optimal temperature or higher) is greatly disturbed (Fig. 9, temperature panel. ) First, the amount of evaporation increases, and the water potential of the plant decreases. Furthermore, stirring due to heat causes the fluidity of the membrane, resulting in disturbance of the cell skeleton associated with the film, and the disturbance of ionic concentration and flux (especially calcium).

The high temperature also causes protein degeneration and aggregation, hindering synthesis. The temperature rise is also a cause of increasing oxidative stress through the production of active oxygen derivatives (hig h-reactive oxidation molecules), which are particularly toxic to cells. Under thermal stress, metabolic activity is inhibited. For example, the inactivation of light chemical system II due to heat hinders the transport of electrons along the photosynthetic chain, leading to the production of active oxygen derivatives. The mechanisms of these species are the mitochondrial electronic transport chain, revitalizing the membrane NADPH oxidase, or increasing light breathing.

Interactions entre les différents facteurs

[19, 20] The oxidative stress causes damage to the cell structure and leads to cell death.₂Lubisco's O₂And co₂Lubsc o-specific factor for.₂C3 plants are divided into plants that live in cold regions and plants that live in warm areas due to their growing optimality. The peculiar factor is CO by Luzuko

It is equivalent to the ratio of fixing ability.₂The equivalent of the ratio. Separate characters show a statistically significant difference.

Author: Galmés et al, 2016, Translated by Elise Muller License: CC-by-SA Source: Journal of Experienceal Botany < SPAN> At the cell level, the cell homey of plants exposed to rapid temperature rise (optimal temperature or higher). (That is, the composition, concentration, and structure of various components and parcels of cells) are greatly disturbed (Fig. 9, temperature panel). First, the amount of evaporation increases, and the water potential of the plant decreases. Furthermore, stirring due to heat causes the fluidity of the membrane, resulting in disturbance of the cell skeleton associated with the film, and the disturbance of ionic concentration and flux (especially calcium).₂The high temperature also causes protein degeneration and aggregation, hindering synthesis. The temperature rise is also a cause of increasing oxidative stress through the production of active oxygen derivatives (hig h-reactive oxidation molecules), which are particularly toxic to cells. Under thermal stress, metabolic activity is inhibited. For example, the inactivation of light chemical system II due to heat hinders the transport of electrons along the photosynthetic chain, leading to the production of active oxygen derivatives. The mechanisms of these species are the mitochondrial electronic transport chain, revitalizing the membrane NADPH oxidase, or increasing light breathing.

Conclusion

[19, 20] The oxidative stress causes damage to the cell structure and leads to cell death.₂Lubisco's O

And co

These three factors-coo

Remerciements

C3 plants are divided into plants that live in cold regions and plants that live in warm areas due to their growing optimality. The peculiar factor is CO by Luzuko

Références

It is equivalent to the ratio of fixing ability.

The equivalent of the ratio. Separate characters show a statistically significant difference.

著者：Galmés et al, 2016, translated by Elise Muller ライセンス：CC-BY-SA 出典：Journal of Experimental Botany 細胞レベルでは、急激な温度上昇（最適温度以上）にさらされた植物の細胞恒常性（すなわち、 The composition, concentration, structure, and structure of various components and parcels of cells are greatly disturbed (Fig. 9, temperature panel). First, the amount of evaporation increases, and the water potential of the plant decreases. Furthermore, stirring due to heat causes the fluidity of the membrane, resulting in disturbance of the cell skeleton associated with the film, and the disturbance of ionic concentration and flux (especially calcium).

The high temperature also causes protein degeneration and aggregation, hindering synthesis. The temperature rise is also a cause of increasing oxidative stress through the production of active oxygen derivatives (hig h-reactive oxidation molecules), which are particularly toxic to cells. Under thermal stress, metabolic activity is inhibited. For example, the inactivation of light chemical system II due to heat hinders the transport of electrons along the photosynthetic chain, leading to the production of active oxygen derivatives. The mechanisms of these species are the mitochondrial electronic transport chain, revitalizing the membrane NADPH oxidase, or increasing light breathing.

[19, 20] The oxidative stress causes damage to the cell structure and leads to cell death.

Lubisco's O

And co

Lubsc o-specific factor for.

C3 plants are divided into plants that live in cold regions and plants that live in warm areas due to their growing optimality. The peculiar factor is CO by Luzuko

It is equivalent to the ratio of fixing ability.

The equivalent of the ratio. Separate characters show a statistically significant difference.

Author: Galmés et al, 2016, Translated by Elise Muller License: CC-by-SA Source: Journal of Experimental Botany

The temperature has a great effect on metabolism. It turned out that the temperature rise of the optimal temperature was convenient for breathing and photosynthesis, but in thermal stress, mitochondria and chloroplast enzymes were reduced. [15, 16, 18, 22] In particular, Rubisco activity decreases. On the other hand, the Rubbisco activation enzyme is inhibited by high temperature (control of Luzco activity, see Figure 2), and on the other hand, CO of Lubsco.₂The peculiarity of the peculiarity is reduced, O

(Fig. 6) is promoted (Fig. 6). This leads to an increase in light breathing and accompanied by the rise in temperature.

The dissolution is O

(Fig. 7) [13, 15].

O and co

And co

Comparison of dissolution to water.

In both gases, the dissolution decreases as the temperature rises. But co

The dissolution of is O

In order to decrease faster than the dissolution of

/Co

. Download the diagram in SVG format.

Author: Pascal Combemorel, Translation / Adaptation License from Bionumber: CC-by-SA Source: BIONUMBERS

Heat stress is also involved in changes in organic structure. Photosynthesis decreases as a result of photocular II sensitivity to light oxide [18] and temperature [15, 16], and the electronic transport chain is slower (for the effects of temperature on photosynthesis speed).

Plants have a protection and repair mechanism to address hig h-temperature danger. The plants produce a hot shock protein (especially the HSP70 (70 thermal shock protein) class), which works as a chaperon to compete with the degeneration of protein [12, 15, 23]. < SPAN> Temperature has a significant effect on metabolism. It turned out that the temperature rise of the optimal temperature was convenient for breathing and photosynthesis, but in thermal stress, mitochondria and chloroplast enzymes were reduced. [15, 16, 18, 22] In particular, Rubisco activity decreases. On the other hand, the Rubbisco activation enzyme is inhibited by high temperature (control of Luzco activity, see Figure 2), and on the other hand, CO of Lubsco.

The peculiarity of the peculiarity is reduced, O

(Fig. 6) is promoted (Fig. 6). This leads to an increase in light breathing and accompanied by the rise in temperature.

The dissolution is O

(Fig. 7) [13, 15].

Crédits

O and co

And co

Comparison of dissolution to water.

In both gases, the dissolution decreases as the temperature rises. But co

La chasse au sanglier : histoire d’une escroquerie nationale

The dissolution of is O

In order to decrease faster than the dissolution of

/Co

Ce que vous allez apprendre

• . Download the diagram in SVG format.
• Author: Pascal Combemorel, Translation / Adaptation License from Bionumber: CC-by-SA Source: BIONUMBERS
• Heat stress is also involved in changes in organic structure. Photosynthesis decreases as a result of photocular II sensitivity to light oxide [18] and temperature [15, 16], and the electronic transport chain is slower (for the effects of temperature on photosynthesis speed).
• Plants have a protection and repair mechanism to address hig h-temperature danger. The plants produce a hot shock protein (especially the HSP70 (70 thermal shock protein) class), which works as a chaperon to compete with the degeneration of protein [12, 15, 23]. The temperature has a great effect on metabolism. It turned out that the temperature rise of the optimal temperature was convenient for breathing and photosynthesis, but in thermal stress, mitochondria and chloroplast enzymes were reduced. [15, 16, 18, 22] In particular, Rubisco activity decreases. On the other hand, the Rubbisco activation enzyme is inhibited by high temperature (control of Luzco activity, see Figure 2), and on the other hand, CO of Lubsco.

The peculiarity of the peculiarity is reduced, O

Des premiers sangliers aux premiers cochons

(Fig. 6) is promoted (Fig. 6). This leads to an increase in light breathing and accompanied by the rise in temperature.

The dissolution is O

(Fig. 7) [13, 15].

O and co

And co

Comparison of dissolution to water.

Racines et fruits de la croissance

In both gases, the dissolution decreases as the temperature rises. But co

The dissolution of is O

In order to decrease faster than the dissolution of

/Co

. Download the diagram in SVG format.

Author: Pascal Combemorel, Translation / Adaptation License from Bionumber: CC-by-SA Source: BIONUMBERS

Heat stress is also involved in changes in organic structure. Photosynthesis decreases as a result of photocular II sensitivity to light oxide [18] and temperature [15, 16], and the electronic transport chain is slower (for the effects of temperature on photosynthesis speed).

Plants have a protection and repair mechanism to address hig h-temperature danger. The plants produce a hot shock protein (especially HSP70 (heat shock protein 70) class), which works as a cheperon to compete with the degeneration of protein [12, 15, 23].

Les sangliers « nuisibles » : fantasme ou réalité ?

The cell structure is also protected by the production of secondary metabolites. For example, increased activity of the PAL enzyme (phenylalanine ammonia lyase) increases the production of phenolic compounds. Similarly, carotenoids protect the cell structure (e. g., zeaxanthin protects lipids from oxidative damage) as the production of isoprene protects photosystem II [15, 23]. Other antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), directly reduce the concentration of reactive oxygen derivatives [15].

The accumulation of solutes, such as glycine betaine and proline, restores the osmotic balance and water potential of the cell.

Such adaptations occur at the cellular scale, and signal transduction changes in response to heat stress occur, as do the morphological changes described below. This involves hormonal signaling, in particular increased abscisic acid production [15], changes in transcriptional activity [16], and activation of signal transduction cascades [15, 23].

It is important to note that while atmospheric temperature affects plant temperature through heat exchange, plant water status is also affected. Severe heat reduces water vapor pressure in the air, creating a large water potential gradient between the soil and the atmosphere. The specific effects of water stress are discussed below.

Drought episodes result in low soil moisture and low water potential in the aboveground parts of plants, leading to high water loss through evapotranspiration, damaging plant growth (especially in the leaf area) and tissue integrity [12, 24]. A characteristic sign of a plant suffering from drought is weakened, drooping, or curling of the leaves.

Water deficit causes physiological and molecular biological changes and damage to plants. A decrease in the amount of water in the plant body can lead to a decrease in turgor pressure (which is the cause of the leaves appearing "flaccid") and, as a result, a decrease in cell growth [24]. In fact, drought is associated with the cessation of growth, initially associated with the cessation of cell elongation due to the decrease in turgor pressure, and, with increasing drought, to the cessation of photosynthesis [25].

Drought also increases the production of reactive oxygen derivatives in cells, thus causing damage due to oxidative stress [24], such as the photosystem, which limits photosynthesis [26]. In addition, stomatal closure limits gas exchange, so that CO

assimilation is limited and photorespiration is increased.

La facture des dégâts de la chasse au sanglier

Finally, dehydration changes the structure, composition and lipid arrangement of membranes, affecting their function, especially their permeability [26, 27].

Plants have mechanisms to limit water loss from the aboveground parts and maximize water uptake to avoid a negative water balance.

On short time scales, stomata play an essential role in regulating water flow, closing when water is scarce (guard cell expansion is reduced and abscisic acid concentration is increased) [24, 26]. Water scarcity causes physiological and molecular biological changes and damage to plants. A decrease in the amount of water in the plant body can lead to a decrease in turgor pressure (which is the cause of the leaves appearing "flaccid") and, as a result, to a decrease in cell growth [24]. In fact, drought is associated with a cessation of growth, initially associated with a cessation of cell elongation due to a decrease in turgor pressure, and, with increasing drought, to a cessation of photosynthesis [25].

Drought also increases the production of reactive oxygen derivatives in cells, thus causing damage due to oxidative stress [24], such as the photosystem, which limits photosynthesis [26]. In addition, stomatal closure limits gas exchange, so CO

assimilation is limited and photorespiration is increased.

Finally, dehydration alters membrane structure, composition and lipid arrangement, affecting membrane function, especially permeability [26, 27].

Plants have mechanisms to limit water loss from aboveground parts and maximize water uptake to avoid negative water balance.

On short-term scales, stomata play an essential role in regulating water flow and close during water shortage (resulting in reduced guard cell expansion and increased abscisic acid concentration) [24, 26]. Water shortages cause physiological and molecular biological changes and damage to plants. A decrease in the amount of water in the plant body can lead to a decrease in turgor pressure (which is responsible for the leaves appearing "flaccid") and, as a result, reduced cell growth [24]. In fact, drought is associated with the cessation of growth, initially associated with the cessation of cell elongation due to a decrease in turgor pressure, and, with increasing drought, to the cessation of photosynthesis [25].

Le saviez-vous ?

Dégâts dans le maïs ou dégâts du maïs ?

Drought also increases the production of reactive oxygen derivatives in cells, thus causing damage due to oxidative stress [24], such as to the photosystem, which limits photosynthesis [26]. In addition, stomatal closure limits gas exchange, thereby limiting CO

assimilation and increasing photorespiration.

Finally, dehydration alters membrane structure, composition and lipid arrangement, affecting membrane function, especially permeability [26, 27].

Plants have mechanisms to limit water loss from aboveground shoots and maximize water uptake to avoid a negative water balance.

On short-term scales, stomata play an essential role in regulating water flow, closing during water deficit (resulting in reduced guard cell expansion and increased abscisic acid concentration) [24, 26].

Certain mechanisms for the gradual regulation of the exchange surface can be introduced, but only in the case of gradual droughts of limited intensity. These mechanisms include limiting leaf expansion, leaf curling, or premature senescence [12, 24, 26]. Some plants also produce trichomes that limit evapotranspiration by reducing air and water flow, and light (and therefore the resulting heat) absorption [24]. Conversely, root systems are strengthened to optimize the acquisition and conservation of water, the most limiting resource. When conditions are not too intense, root growth is maintained or even increased, the number of lateral roots increases, and roots grow deeper (due to alterations in gravitropism and auxin signaling) [12].

Reproductive development is also affected by drought, e. g., flowering is delayed and pollen viability is reduced [12] (Figure 9, drought panel). Reduced reproductive development is associated with reduced productivity and agricultural yields (see Figure 8 for examples of wheat and rice).

La paix sociale achetée par les chasseurs

Meta-analysis of drought effects on agronomic traits in rice and wheat

Numbers indicate data points, bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. Variability in trait values ​​is calculated by averaging over 50 studies per species. Each study measured the trait in well-irrigated and poorly irrigated control plants.

Authors: Zhang et al, 2018, Translated by Élise Muller License: CC-BY-SA Source: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Three main types of adaptive strategies are observed in plants when faced with drought: escape, avoidance, and tolerance. An adaptive strategy is a set of interconnected adaptations that promote growth and reproduction in the face of a given stress.

Escape strategies are mainly found in annual species, which show intensive development outside drought periods. This is mainly achieved by early flowering and rapid reproductive development before the drought period [12, 24].

Other plants have observed strategies to avoid dehydration. These plants have a mechanism to limit the abov e-mentioned evaporation. In other words, the roots are deeply rooted to increase the capture of water, the root system is strengthened, and the leaves are restricted to change the water (small, or the leaves are curled, and the bite is enhanced. [12, 24] has a trichome. Therefore, despite the drought, these plants hold the same moisture as the wet period.

Interdit d’interdire la chasse au sanglier ?

Finally, there are plants that are stressed, resulting in losing water, but can resist (resistant strategy). These plants produce various molecules (such as sorbitol, glycin vetine), reduce the existence of active oxygen derivatives, maintain the balance balance, and protect the structural integrity of cells [24, 26]. These changes are clearly accompanied by a change in transfer control. For example, the expression of abscidate signal gene increases in leaves, and the expression of genes related to proline metabolism and wall compounds increases. In particular, the expression and local control of Aquaporin are essential for drying resistance.

The above effects are parameters (co)

It was observed in an experimental system that separately controlled the concentration, temperature, and water stress). However, as in the case of climate change, one of the few studies conducted by simultaneously being adapted to multiple factors shows interaction between different factors. For example, high CO

The yield of soybeans increases. However, if the same experiment is conducted under the drought conditions, Co

Increase the yield due to the smaller amount is very small. Temperature effects and co

[12].

Another limit is that plants are not alone in the ecosystem, but must consider the interaction with other biosenosis. For example, when the temperature rises, plants are often more likely to be infected with pathogens. Also, when combined with different factors in the ecosystem or different organisms, for example, in soy, CO < Span> strategies to avoid dehydration are observed. These plants have a mechanism to limit the abov e-mentioned evaporation. In other words, the roots are deeply rooted to increase the capture of water, the root system is strengthened, and the leaves are restricted to change the water (small, or the leaves are curled, and the bite is enhanced. [12, 24] has a trichome. Therefore, despite the drought, these plants hold the same moisture as the wet period.

Le Sanglier, miracle cynégétique

Finally, there are plants that are stressed, resulting in losing water, but can resist (resistant strategy). These plants produce various molecules (such as sorbitol, glycin vetine), reduce the existence of active oxygen derivatives, maintain the balance balance, and protect the structural integrity of cells [24, 26]. These changes are clearly accompanied by a change in transfer control. For example, the expression of abscidate signal gene increases in leaves, and the expression of genes related to proline metabolism and wall compounds increases. In particular, the expression and local control of Aquaporin are essential for drying resistance.

The above effects are parameters (co)

It was observed in an experimental system that separately controlled the concentration, temperature, and water stress). However, as in the case of climate change, one of the few studies conducted by simultaneously being adapted to multiple factors shows interaction between different factors. For example, high CO

The yield of soybeans increases. However, if the same experiment is conducted under the drought conditions, Co

Increase the yield due to the smaller amount is very small. Temperature effects and co

[12].

Another limit is that plants are not alone in the ecosystem, but must consider the interaction with other biosenosis. For example, when the temperature rises, plants are often more likely to be infected with pathogens. Also, when combined with different factors in the ecosystem or different organisms, for example, in soy, CO and other plants have a strategy to avoid dehydration. These plants have a mechanism to limit the abov e-mentioned evaporation. In other words, the roots are deeply rooted to increase the capture of water, the root system is strengthened, and the leaves are restricted to change the water (small, or the leaves are curled, and the bite is enhanced. [12, 24] has a trichome. Therefore, despite the drought, these plants hold the same moisture as the wet period.

Le saviez-vous ?

Cochonglier, sanglochon et compagnie

Finally, there are plants that are stressed, resulting in losing water, but can resist (resistant strategy). These plants produce various molecules (such as sorbitol, glycin vetine), reduce the existence of active oxygen derivatives, maintain the balance balance, and protect the structural integrity of cells [24, 26]. These changes are clearly accompanied by a change in transfer control. For example, the expression of abscidate signal gene increases in leaves, and the expression of genes related to proline metabolism and wall compounds increases. In particular, the expression and local control of Aquaporin are essential for drying resistance.

The above effects are parameters (co)

It was observed in an experimental system that separately controlled the concentration, temperature, and water stress). However, as in the case of climate change, one of the few studies conducted by simultaneously being adapted to multiple factors shows interaction between different factors. For example, high CO

The yield of soybeans increases. However, if the same experiment is conducted under the drought conditions, Co

Increase the yield due to the smaller amount is very small. Temperature effects and co

L’échec de la gestion par le fusil

[12].

Another limit is that plants are not alone in the ecosystem, but must consider the interaction with other biosenosis. For example, when the temperature rises, plants are often more likely to be infected with pathogens. Also, when combined with different factors and different organisms in the ecosystem, for example, soy

Is increasing the presence of nodules only during the drought.

The biological elements of the ecosystem must also be considered. CO in the atmosphere

The increase in carbon assimilation associated with the rise is observed only when sufficient nutrients and water are available.

Changes in plant growth discussed in this paper are mainly inverted and shor t-term reactions by plants to changes in the environment. These indications are performed within the range of expression type of expression. However, in the long term, climate change has caused a new selection pressure and has changed the genetic configuration of ecosystems and biodiversity. These selection pressure is Co

It leads to the choice of concentration, temperature, and the change in the available water volume, and if the change is too rapid, it will lead to the extinction of the species.

Deployment, metabolism, cell effects of three environmental factors affected by climate change

Author: Elise Muller License: CC-by-SA

Elise Müller and Pascal Kelp Morel are grateful for the polite consideration of Olivier Rude and Jea n-Louis Duran for this text and their advice.

Pour conclure

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